Learning objectives
The course aims to provide the molecular and cellular foundations needed to understand the functioning of the various organs in the human body, integrating knowledge from Biology, Anatomy, Chemistry, and Physics acquired in previous courses.
Prerequisites
Acquired knowledge in the following subjects: Human Anatomy, Animal Biology, Plant Biology, Physics.
Course unit content
The Physiology course is divided into three parts.
The first part focuses on cellular physiology.
The second part is dedicated to integrative physiology, with a particular emphasis on the nervous system.
The third part covers organ and system physiology.
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
Biological membranes. Ion channels. Nernst equation. Membrane potential. Action potential. Conduction of potentials. Synapses and neurotransmitters. Neuromodulators. Synaptic circuits
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Sensory systems. Vision, Hearing, Somatosensory systems. Pain, perception and modulation.
Motor control and reflexes. Autonomic nervous system, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
ORGAN PHYSIOLOGY
Skeletal muscle: contraction, tension/length, and velocity/load relationships. Smooth muscle
Heart: cardiac action potentials, electrocardiogram, cardiac mechanics, regulation of heart contraction
Blood pressure and circulation
Respiration: mechanics, capillary exchange, neural control of respiration
Kidney: filtration, absorption, secretion, renal clearance
pH regulation and fluid-electrolyte balance
Digestive system: motility, secretions, digestion, and absorption
Hormones: hypothalamus and pituitary.
Full programme
Cell Membranes and Transmembrane Transport Active, passive transport, and ion channels. Cellular compartments. Specialization of the plasma membrane: cell-to-cell and cell-to-environment interactions (channels); recognition of endogenous and exogenous materials (receptors). Membrane permeability: passive diffusion and Fick's law. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Osmolarity and tonicity. Protein-mediated transport: facilitated transport, primary and secondary active transport. Structural and functional properties of ion channels. Transport across epithelia.
Physiology of Excitable Cells Electrical properties of cell membranes. Transmembrane potential. Electrochemical balance and the Nernst equation. Goldman equation. General characteristics of excitable membranes. Passive electrical properties of membranes: capacitance and resistance. Ionic bases of the action potential. Propagation of the action potential. Passive propagation of electrical signals. Time constant. Space constant. Propagation of the action potential.
Synapses Electrical synapses. Chemical synapses. Mechanism of neurotransmitter release: quantal nature of release, role of calcium. Ionotropic and metabotropic post-synaptic receptors. Neuromuscular junction. Nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic synapses.
Physiology of Muscle Movement Skeletal muscle. Mechanics of muscle contraction. Ultrastructural and molecular bases of contraction and excitation-contraction coupling. Active and passive components. Muscle contraction under isotonic and isometric conditions. Single twitch and tetanus. Force/length relationship in the muscle as a whole and in the sarcomere. Modulation of contractile force. Muscle work and fatigue. Muscle fibers and motor units.
Simple Neural Circuits Spinal reflex arc: myotatic and inverse myotatic reflexes. Autonomic reflex arc. Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic. Smooth muscle and its innervation.
Sensory Mechanisms Characteristics of sensory transducers. Phasic and tonic receptors. The somatosensory system. Mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors: types and functions. Mechanosensory pathways. Pain: receptors, hyperalgesia, axon reflex. Referred pain and the "gate" of pain. The eye and retinal image formation. Photoreceptors and their response to light: cGMP-gated channels, transducin, and the rhodopsin cycle. Retinal organization: bipolar, horizontal, amacrine, and ganglion cells. ON-center and OFF-center cells. The visual cortex and its organization. The ear: cochlea and sound wave propagation. The vestibular system: structure and function. Chemoreceptors: gustatory and olfactory systems.
Physiology of the Heart and Circulation General aspects. The heart: structure, electrical and contractile properties. Pacemaker potentials. The cardiac cycle: electrical, mechanical, and hydrodynamic aspects. Cardiac output. Heart workload. Neural regulation of heart rate. Blood: general characteristics. Fluid dynamics: flow, output, pressure, velocity, and resistance. Hemodynamics. Systemic circulation: arteries, capillaries, veins. Blood flow and pressure and their regulation.
Respiratory Physiology Structure and function of the respiratory system. Respiratory mechanics. Alveolar and pleural pressure. Surfactant and Laplace's law. Respiratory work. Lung volumes and capacities. Alveolar ventilation and the physics of gas exchange. Pulmonary diffusion capacity and ventilation/perfusion ratio. Pulmonary and bronchial circulation. Alveolar and cellular PO2 and PCO2. Oxygen transport: hemoglobin and myoglobin. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve: Bohr effect, temperature effect, and 2-3 DPG. CO2 transport: Haldane effect, carbonic anhydrase, and Hamburger effect. Buffer capacity of H2CO3/HCO3-. States of acidosis and alkalosis. Control of respiration: medullary-pontine centers, pulmonary stretch receptors, and chemoreceptors. Regulation of plasma pH.
Renal Physiology General considerations. Homeostasis and osmoregulation. The kidney: structure and vascularization. The nephron and its functions: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion. Tubular modifications of glomerular filtrate. Countercurrent exchange and multiplication, cortico-medullary osmolarity gradient. Reabsorption of salts and water in the distal tubule and collecting duct, and their hormonal regulation (antidiuretic hormone, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, atrial natriuretic factor). Renal regulation of blood osmotic pressure and pH.
Hormonal Regulation Hormones: synthesis, release, and mechanism of action. Secretory cells. Second messengers. The hypothalamic-pituitary system. Neurohypophyseal hormones. Adenohypophyseal hormones. Adrenal glands. Medullary hormones and the action of catecholamines. Cortical hormones. The thyroid and thyroid hormones. The endocrine pancreas: insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. Sex hormones.
Nutrition, Digestion, and Absorption Nutrition and energy. Overview of the digestive system. Digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Gastrointestinal secretions: acids, bases, and digestive enzymes. Mechanisms of absorption.
Bibliography
Fisiologia delle molecole e dei sistemi integrati - Edises
Fondamenti di Fisiologia generale ed integrata - Edises
Vander. Fisiologia - Ambrosiana
Teaching methods
The Physiology course is delivered in person and consists of 72 hours of lectures.
Assessment methods and criteria
The exam will consist of an oral test aimed at assessing the student's level of acquired knowledge.
